The time and place: Rio de Janeiro in the 1870s. The setting: an all-night dance, the guest list a Who's Who of Rio's high
society. The music: waltzes, polkas, mazurkas, schottisches, perhaps a lundú. The band: a quartet, featuring a flutist, two
guitarists, and a cavaquinho player. (They are, like most of their countrymen, from various ethnic backgrounds -- primarily
Afro-Brazilian.) The host gives the signal for the next dance, the bandleader raises his instrument to his lips, and they begin
again. The music is mercurial and brilliant, marked by daring improvisation, highly sophisticated counterpoint, and syncopated
Afro-Brazilian rhythms. The flutist and bandleader is local music teacher -- and pioneering choro composer -- Joaquim
Antônio da Silva Callado Júnior. His band: Choro Carioca. And the tune: perhaps was "Flor Amorosa" ("Amorous Flower"),
one of Callado's most beautiful compositions.
Choro (pronounced SHO-ru) wasn't a fully formed style in 1870, any more than its North American cousin, jazz (which postdates choro by almost four decades) was during its early years. Although choro began as a "Brazilianized" way of playing popular European dance music, with instrumentation that was typical of the time and region, it was soon transmuted into one of the most important and sophisticated genres of Brazilian music. In many respects, it's a fusion of two cultures: the bred-in-the-bone yearning of Portuguese melodies combined with West African rhythms. However, in 1870, nobody in Rio de Janeiro realized that they were witnessing the birth of an entirely new style; that would come later. In the meantime, musicians were free to experiment, to develop a whole new way of playing and composing, and they did it with alacrity and considerable joie de vivre.
Why "choro?" No one is really sure, although the Portuguese word "chorar" (to cry, lament) is the most obvious source -- according to José Ramos Tinhorão, "[choro] may have gained its name from the common use of low guitar notes and 'plaintive tones.' " (Tinhorão, as cited by Chris McGowan and Ricardo Pessanha in The Brazilian Sound.) The antecedents of choro are equally vague, although some writers believe that the earliest groups developed out of slave ensembles whose primary instruments were guitar and cavaquinho. In the late 19th century, choro ensembles were eclectic in both membership and musicianship -- slaves and freedmen rubbed shoulders with middle-class, conservatory-trained musicians. The only real requirement for belonging was the most basic: If you can play, you're in. All of the leading composers during choro's early years were equally willing to cross boundaries of class and color, as well as those of musical tradition: Anacleto de Medeiros (1866-1907) wrote choros for a firemen's brass band, which he also conducted, while Chiquinha Gonzaga (Francisca Edwiges Neves Gonzaga, 1847-1935) flouted social convention by becoming the first woman composer to gain prominence in Brazil, in an era when women were equally unwelcome in the conservatory and popular ensembles. Her "Só no Choro" ("Only in Choro," 1889), "Corta-Jaca," and "Forrobodó" have been an integral part of the choro repertoire since their debut. Gonzaga's importance as a composer of operettas and hundreds of light classical and popular pieces has given her a permanent place in the pantheon of Brazilian composers. The work of her contemporary, Ernesto Nazareth (1863-1934), also had a far-reaching effect on choro; like Gonzaga, he was a classically trained pianist, and his works were composed exclusively for the piano. A prolific writer, he utilized a variety of dance rhythms in his pieces and is known for his "Brazilian tangos." Nazareth's contributions to the choro repertoire include "Odeon" (1909, named for the Cine Odeon, where he worked as conductor of the pit band) and "Apanhei-te Cavaquinho" ("Gotcha, Cavaquinho," 1913). His work made a strong impression on the great Brazilian classical composer, Heitor Villa-Lobos (1897-1959), who, while a young man, worked in the Odeon band. Villa-Lobos' affinity for the music went very deep - he introduced his own classical choros to concert halls the world over, and dedicated his "Choros No. 1" (1920) to Nazareth.
As mentioned earlier, the earliest chorões utilized guitars, flute, and cavaquinho. Then as now, the guitars play melody as well as rhythm, while the cavaquinho is used for playing the bass rhythm and harmonics. (Depending on the skill of the cavaquinista, it may also be used as a solo instrument.) By the 1890s, the typical lineup had expanded to include clarinet and bandolim. Piano was a sometime thing at best, as chorões were migratory. From 1870 to circa 1920, they worked the all-night party circuit and were paid primarily in food and drink, moving from place to place as wanted or needed. This was hardly a stable life, but it provided many opportunities for trying out new compositions and honing musical skills. Chorões have always put a high premium on improvisational ability, and formal gigs were as much a part of training as rodas de choro (jam sessions).
Cut to the late teens and early 1920s, and the quintessential choro musician/ composer, Pixinguinha, arrives on the scene. Born Alfredo Rocha Vianna Júnior (1898-1973), he was a virtuoso flutist, excelled on tenor sax, and is considered to be the best-ever composer of choros. He started his first group, Choro Pixinguinha, in 1917, but his second, Os Oito Batutas ("The Eight Masters"), turned choro into an international phenomenon. Pixinguinha played the flute, while his brother China alternated between piano and guitar. The rest of the instrumental lineup was fairly standard, with one exception - percussion. Jacob Palmieri's virtuoso pandeiro playing made the Afro-Brazilian roots of choro explicit and added a whole new dynamic to the music. (Although the Oito Batutas are cited as the first chorões to use native percussion instruments, they were also part of a general trend toward this kind of instrumentation.) Guitarist Donga (Ernesto dos Santos, whose "Pelo Telefone" was the first samba to be recorded) added his compositions and deft musicianship to the group. (Sambas were played with choro instrumentation, which is still standard.) In succeeding years, saxophone, trombone, trumpet, and drum set were added to the Batutas' lineup for highly successful tours of France and Latin America. More important, foxtrots, a North American innovation, became part of their book. But the backbone of the Batutas' repertoire was Brazilian, and the members brought their own sense of swing (or balanço) to North American jazz tunes and dance styles.
After the Batutas' breakup in 1928, Pixinguinha continued his career as a soloist, composer and bandleader. During the 1940s, financial difficulties forced him to join flutist Benedito Lacerda's band as tenor sax soloist. Many of Pixinguinha's most famous pieces (which are comparable to works by North Americans like Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin) are also credited to Lacerda. Although they did co-compose some works, it's likely that Pixinguinha relinquished sole copyright of his own pieces in order to earn meager royalties and, more important, to maintain partial control of his authorship. The list of Brazilian standards written by Pixinguinha himself includes "1 x 0" ("One to Nothing"), "Carinhoso" ("Tender"), "Ainda me Recordo" ("I Still Remember"), and "Ingênuo" ("Naive").
From the late 1920s through the 1940s, choro was a constant presence in Brazilian culture, but it was secondary to jazz and Brazilian vocal music, which dominated the airwaves and the recording industry. However, new choros were being composed, and musicians continued to gather at rodas de choro, which could and did happen just about anywhere -- at backyard parties, botequins (Rio-style bistros), and private homes. The most popular singers of the era could be heard on live radio broadcasts with groups of choro musicians (known as regionais) as accompanists -- some of the most important young chorões earned their living by playing in these ensembles. They included São Paulo native Garoto (Anibal Augusto Sardinha, 1915-1955), who was singularly adept on bandolim, cavaquinho, banjo, and his favorite instrument, the six-string guitar. He found steady work in the regionais and in the Bando da Lua, singer Carmen Miranda's backup band. Garoto was a member during Miranda's Broadway and Hollywood debuts in 1939. (His tenor guitar solo for Miranda's hit song, "South American Way" -- from the film "Down Argentine Way" -- is one of a handful of documented performances. Although brief, it's outstanding.) In 1940, Garoto returned to Rio and radio work, and to composing.
Jacob do Bandolim (Jacob Pick Bittencourt, 1918-1969), guitarists César Faria and Canhoto da Paraíba (Francisco "Chico" Soares de Araújo, born 1928), clarinetist/ saxophonist Abel Ferreira (1915-1980), flutist Altamiro Carrilho (born 1924), virtuoso cavaquinista Waldir Azevedo (1923-1980), and Chiquinho do Acordeon (1928-1993) also began working for the regionais during the 1940s. (Chiquinho and another accordionist, Orlando Silveira, were responsible for making the accordion an integral part of rodas de choro and various choro ensembles.) And Radamés Gnattali (1906-1988), a classically trained pianist, began his career as a radio arranger, composer, and conductor. He worked closely with many of the best chorões of the era and became the bellwether and, later, mentor for a new generation of musicians. All of these men (along with Pixinguinha, Lacerda, and many others) were part of a brief choro renaissance, starting in the late 1940s and lasting until the arrival of bossa nova in the late 1950s. Record companies actively sought out and signed chorões-- their recordings were broadcast regularly, and they also made many appearances on live radio shows during the 1950s. (The heyday of live radio lasted longer in Brazil than in the United States, although television displaced it during the early 1960s.)
During the1950s, several exceptionally gifted choro musicians began their careers. One of the foremost among them is clarinetist/ saxophonist Paulo Moura (born 1933), who started out as a classical soloist, but soon moved into various areas of popular music (jazz, bossa nova, traditional samba, and samba de gafieira) and ultimately, choro. He's worked as an arranger for many important figures in Brazilian popular music (usually referred to as MPB or música popular Brasileira, a catch-all term that almost defies definition) while following a very ambitious and ground-breaking path as a composer and recording artist. However, his work as a chorão is outstanding as well as artistically successful, and he's typical of many musicians in bringing technical mastery and an open-minded attitude to choro. Bandolinistas Déo Rian (born 1944) and Joel Nascimento (born 1937) made their debut during the late 1950s, and Jacob do Bandolim was recording periodically -- his 1950s sides (under the name "Jacob e seu Regional") are the harbingers of his 1960s ensemble, Época de Ouro ("The Golden Era"). When bossa nova burst onto the scene during the late 1950s, choro was still as vital as ever, but its public presence was eclipsed by this new trend. Although choro didn't go underground, few artists had recording contracts, and the regionais were overshadowed by the small, jazz-style combos used to accompany bossa nova singers. The chorões kept jamming whenever and wherever possible, while yet another major force was at work: Radamés Gnattali, who was composing choros (as well as pieces for big bands, symphony orchestras, and chamber ensembles) was becoming a mentor to many young musicians. Choro was, in fact, being renewed and revitalized by Gnattali and others, although it would be some years before their efforts would become known to the general public.
The 1960s brought many changes to Brazilian music and to the country itself. During the first half of the decade, bossa nova was still popular, but new musicians and singers soon overtook it. (One of the most memorable was Elis Regina, who paid homage to the choro tradition by recording Pixinguinha's beautiful choro-canção, "Carinhoso," in 1966.) From 1965 onward, MPB was on the rise, in national festivals and on radio and television. Many of Brazil's best-known recording artists began their careers during the 1960s - they include Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, and other members of the Tropicália movement, which began in 1967. Choro wasn't in the forefront of public attention, but it was a constant presence, and new developments were occurring. In 1961, Jacob do Bandolim and Época de Ouro released their first LP. Members included Dino 7 Cordas (Horondinho José da Silva, born 1918 -- his nickname comes from his instrument, the 7-string guitar), master percussionist Jorginho, and lead guitarist César Faria. The group had been practicing and jamming at Faria's house for years and his son Paulo -- now known as Paulinho da Viola (born 1942) -- was listening. He was deeply fascinated by the music and began playing guitar and cavaquinho as a child. Paulinho's career as a top-flight samba composer, lyricist, and singer began in 1963, but choro was his first love, and he would return to it later. Meanwhile, Jacob's group went on to record several innovative albums before his death in 1969. (Jacob also participated in a groundbreaking recording of Radamés Gnattali's "Suite Retratos" in 1964 -- see the discography for more details on the piece.)
The 1970s saw a revitalization of choro, as national festivals were held in Rio and São Paulo, and young musicians began attracting attention. Two of the most important were guitarist Rafael Rabello (sometimes spelled "Raphael," 1962-1995) and his sister, cavaquinista Luciana Rabello (born 1961). Their group, Os Carioquinhas, formed in 1976, was an instant success. By the time Os Carioquinhas broke up (1978), both Rafael and Luciana had become established chorões. Rafael went on to a meteoric, though brief career, while Luciana continues to play and is now active in recording and promoting the work of other choro musicians. Both of them were founding members of the Camerata Carioca, a groundbreaking ensemble formed by Joel Nascimento in 1979. The Camerata flourished under Radamés Gnattali's aegis, with Nascimento as bandleader. Their material was eclectic -- everything from Vivaldi to MPB to classic choros (and new material by Gnattali) was fair game -- and they were a genuine hit. Although the Camerata folded in 1986, its pioneering influence continues -- it was perhaps the first true choro novo (new choro) ensemble. And in 1976, Paulinho da Viola recorded his pivotal album, Memorias Chorando. His highly sensitive and poetic readings of standards and originals brought a new sensibility to bear on the music - contemporary, yet deeply rooted in tradition. Abel Ferreira's beautiful Brasil, Sax e Clarineta (also recorded in 1976) runs a close second. (Unfortunately, EMI Brasil has deleted both albums from its catalog, but careful searching might yield a terrific reward.) The late 70s also saw the establishment of Nó em Pingo D'Água, a highly eclectic choro ensemble that has consistently produced genre-bending syntheses of choro, jazz, samba, and MPB. Their recordings are often provocative and always fascinating. (The press tagged them as the first choro novo group, although the title arguably belongs to the Camerata.)
In the 1980s there was a continued upsurge of interest in choro, with more festivals and concerts (including the series that was the basis for Noites Cariocas -- see the discography) and the establishment of music education programs devoted specifically to choro. As noted earlier, Rafael and Luciana Rabello and the Camerata Carioca were very much in the public eye, and new groups were beginning to record. A short list of some groups and individuals that bear watching: Trio Madeira Brasil, Rabo de Lagartixa, Reco do Bandolim and Choro Livre, O Trio, Água de Moringa, guitarists/ composers Guinga and Mauricio Carrilho, and the Orquestra de Cordas Brasileiras, which is not a conventional string orchestra -- its main instruments are guitar, viola caipira, bandolim, cavaquinho, bass, and percussion. Although choro exists in MPB's shadow, it's flourishing and is as eclectic as ever. A tremendous range of styles can be heard, from the highly traditional choro of Déo Rian and his son Bruno (check Os Bambas do Bandolim, listed in the discography) to amalgams of MPB, jazz, and music from Brazil's northeast and other parts of Latin America. But choro is still Carioca to the core, rooted in the music and culture of its birthplace: uma mistura fina (a fine mixture) in every way.
Various artists Choro: 1906-1947 [Frémeaux & Associés FA 166 (1999)] If you end up falling for choro, this is the historical recording set to buy (along with the Pixinguinha compilation below). There's track after track of seminal recordings, lovingly and unobtrusively remastered. I'm especially fond of Ernesto Nazareth's solo piano cuts, but there's Garoto, Pixinguinha's first-ever recordings, and much more. Excellent liner notes in French and English.
Various artists Pixinguinha -100 Anos [BMG Brasil 7432146286 (1998)] This two-disc set (one of many issued in honor of the 100th anniversary of his birth) is a treasure trove of recordings by Pixinguinha and other artists in classic interpretations of his work. Pixinguinha's performances on flute are especially captivating, and there are plenty of them. Very good notes (in Portuguese). There's a bit of overlap with Various Artists Choro: 1906-1947.
Paulo Moura & Os Batutas Pixinguinha [Blue Jackel BJAC 5019 (1998)] Master reed player Moura (on clarinet) with a seven-piece band, captured in an electrifying live performance of choros and sambas made famous by Os Oito Batutas. Although the group used period instrumentation and followed some 1920s musical conventions, this set isn't a plodding attempt at recreating the Batutas' style - it's more like a scorching-hot roda de choro. It's very difficult to pick the best tracks here, although "Cochichando" ("Whispering"), "Ingênuo," "Vou Vivendo" ("I'm Living") and "Segura Ele" ("Grab Him") are a few of the highlights. The percussionists really cut loose on "Batuque na Cozinha" ("Samba Drumming in the Kitchen") and "Mistura e Manda" ("Mix it Up and Let it Rip"), where Moura riffs over a percussion-only base.
Jacob do Bandolim Original Classic Recordings, Vol. I [Acoustic Disc ACD-3 (1991)], Jacob do Bandolim Original Classic Recordings, Vol. II [Acoustic Disc ACD-13 (1994)] The titles say it all - these are indeed classic sides by Jacob, and nicely remastered, too. Although many of the recording dates are missing, the time span is 1952-1966, and most of the cuts feature Jacob with Época de Ouro. Some of his most important compositions are included - "Noites Cariocas" ("Rio Nights"), "Doce de Coco" ("Coconut Candy"), and "Receita de Samba" ("Recipe for Samba") among them. There are plenty of standards and lesser-known compositions by other chorões, including Zequinha de Abreu (1880-1935), Pixinguinha, and Ernesto Nazareth.
Paulo Bellinati The Guitar Works of Garoto [ GSP 1002, 1991] Garoto's reputation as a nonpareil soloist and composer is legendary, but extant recordings are very rare. Guitarist Bellinati researched original manuscripts and homemade tapes, transcribing and arranging 21 of Garoto's best compositions for this disc. His interpretations gleam like fine-cut gems.
Various Artists Radamés Gnattali - Retratos [Kuarup Discos KCD-044] Some of Gnattali's most famous pieces, done choro-style. This disc includes his "Suite Retratos" (musical "portraits" of Pixinguinha, Ernesto Nazareth, Anacleto de Medeiros, and Chiquinha Gonzaga), performed by Chiquinho do Acordeon, Rafael Rabello (6-string guitar) and Dininho (acoustic bass guitar). An excellent illustration of the close affinity between Brazilian classical and popular music, with lovely playing to boot.
Various Artists Noites Cariocas [Kuarup Discos KCD-040] A major must-have disc for any choro collection. Recorded live in the late 1980s, the list of luminaries includes Altamiro Carrilho (flute), Joel Nascimento (bandolim), Paulo Sérgio Santos and Paulo Moura (sax and clarinets), Zé de Velha (trombone), Paulinho da Viola and Henrique Cazes (cavaquinho) - and that's just for starters. This is the first choro album I ever heard, and I was instantly hooked - the immediacy, warmth and mastery of the performances are completely captivating. Although some of the musicians hark back to the regionais, there are plenty of Young Turks who matured under the benign tutelage of Radamés Gnattali. He's honored by the inclusion of his "Remexendo" ("Swinging") and "Chiquinha Gonzaga," along with Paulinho da Viola's jazz-inflected "Sarau para Radamés," which captures the feeling of a typical roda de choro at his home. There are also tributes to Jacob do Bandolim (the title track and "Vibrações"), and Pixinguinha (superb readings of "Ingênuo" and "Carinhoso," with Chiquinho do Acordeon as featured soloist) along with many more classics and new pieces by group members. Best of all: an achingly beautiful arrangement of Villa-Lobos' "Bachianas Brasileiras No. 5" for guitars, cavaquinho, bandolim, soprano sax, and piano.
Paulo Moura Mistura e Manda [Kuarup Discos KCD-017] Pegged as "a perfect album" by a choro aficionado -- an audacious claim, but they're right. From hang-tough swingers like the jazzy "Chorinho pra Você" to haunting ballads ("Ternura" and "Nunca"), Moura soars, and his accompanists (including guitarists César Faria and Rafael Rabello) are right there with him. One of many bonuses: caixa de fósforos (matchbox) percussion -- a samba tradition that's seldom heard on record these days.
Canhoto da Paraíba Walking on Coals [Milestone MCD-9230 (1993)] Brazil is known for its masterly guitarists, and Canhoto, who hails from the northeastern state of Paraíba, is one of the best around. This collection of choros features elegantly eloquent compositions by Canhoto, and top-flight accompanists, too. (Rafael Rabello and João Lyra play backing guitar, while Paulinho da Viola guests on cavaquinho.) Guitarists take note: Canhoto is left-handed and plays his instrument backwards, using standard right-handed stringing and chord positions.
Paulo Moura & Raphael RabelloDois Irmãos [Milestone MCD-9203 (1991)] Clarinet and acoustic guitar might not seem like the most obvious choices for a duo album, but Moura and Rabello's take on choro and other forms of Brazilian instrumental music is subtly sublime. Their readings of Abel Ferreira's "Chorando Baixinho," "1 x 0" and Moura's own "Tarde de Chuva" are three good excuses to investigate this set, but you're sure to find plenty more.
Raphael Rabello & Dino 7 Cordas [Milestone MCD-9221 (1991)] Rabello and Dino 7 Cordas joined forces for this classic (and classy) set of sambas and choros. Highlights include Lamartine Babo's "Alma de Violinos," Garoto's "Desvairada" (played at a string-searing tempo) and several cuts by master guitarist and composer João Pernambuco (1883-1947). Try listening on headphones to catch who's playing on what channel, as the information isn't in the liners.
Isaías e seus Chorões Pé na Cadeira [Kuarup Discos KCD-122] The warmth and bonhomie of this album is attested to by its title, which, literally translated, means "foot on the chair" -- the usual stance taken by bandolim, guitar and cavaquinho players while doing a solo turn. Beautiful cuts on top of it all, including Pixinguinha's "Sofres Porque Queres" ("You Suffer Because You Want To"), Garoto's "Choro Triste No. 2" and "Salomé," a seldom-heard piece by the great Joaquim Callado.
Trio Madeira Brasil [TMB-98 (1998)] An exceptional effort by Ronaldo do Bandolim, José Paulo Becker (guitar, viola caipira), and Marcello Gonçalves (7-string guitar). Their unconventional take on classic choros and newer material is never less than fresh, and often startlingly original. My picks include their pseudo-flamenco rendition of Jacob do Bandolim's "Santa Morena," Ernesto Nazareth's seldom-heard "Celestial" (which lives up to its title), and "Loro," by avant-garde/ jazz composer and musician Egberto Gismonti. (The sitar-like sonorities that Becker gets from the viola caipira on this cut are surprising and absolutely right.)
Henrique Cazes Toca Waldir Azevedo, Pixinguinha, Hermeto & Cia [Kuarup Discos KCD-055] Cavaquinho ace Cazes does knock-out homage to the great Waldir Azevedo, along with new compositions by Cazes and other young chorões. Cazes' intent was to expand his instrument's horizons and to add new sounds and sonorities to the choro vocabulary, and he pulled it off beautifully. Top cuts include "Modulando" by Rubens Leal Brito, and Azevedo's "Delicado" and "Brasileirinho." Great support from Rafael Rabello, Paulo Moura, and Chiquinho do Acordeon, too.
Luciana Rabello [Acari Records AR 3 (2000)] A heart-stoppingly beautiful album by my favorite cavaquinista. This is Rabello's first recording as a leader, and it's something of a musical autobiography -- there are pieces by her mentors, along with works composed by her, often in company with longtime musical partner Cristovão Bastos. There's plenty of grace, elegance, and wit, but the overriding feeling is one of longing. Every cut glows, but "Flor de Sapucaia" and "Flor de Jacarandá" (written with Bastos, and featuring him on piano) are positively incandescent. The floating dissonances of the latter resolve themselves not just in the listener's ear, but in the heart. In sum, the most intimate, poetic choro recording since Paulinho da Viola's landmark Memorias Chorando.
Água de Moringa Saracoteando [Malandro Records MAL 71007 (1999)] Six of choro's young lions take listeners on a fascinating, full-tilt tour through the style's history, beginning with a zippy rendition of Ernesto Nazareth's "Fon-Fon" and progressing all the way to "Intocável" ("Impossible to Play") by avant-garde composer Hermeto Pascoal. This group gets very high marks for their creative, challenging arrangements. Their take on Pixinguinha's "Sensível," with its bebop-inflected reed chart, is likely to set your head spinning, while the unabashed romanticism of Cristovão Bastos' "Retalhos" is a souvenir of late 19th-century Rio, moonlit serestas and all.
Rabo de Lagartixa Quebra-Queixo [Malandro Records MAL 71014 (2000)] An utterly engaging album by one of the best choro novo ensembles, featuring Daniela Spielmann (saxes), Alessandro Valente (cavaquinho), Marcello Gonçalves (7-string guitar), Alexandre Brasil (basses), and the multi-talented Beto Cazes on percussion. Their repertoire is a mix of choro, samba, jazz, tango, and various song forms from northeastern Brazil. Choice cuts include their Arabo-African-Argentinean take on Waldir Azevedo's classic "Arrasta-pé," while the vocal and percussive acrobatics on "Carrapato" are a sure-fire cure for the blues, Brazilian-style.
Various Artists Os Bambas do Bandolim [Kuarup Discos KCD-116 (1999)] "Bambas," roughly translated, means "masters" -- musicians who've earned the respect of their peers through their passion, precision, and sheer love of the music. Ten of Brazil's best were chosen for this compilation -- there's plenty of fire and flash, along with a depth of interpretation that you'd expect from four generations of pioneering players.
This is the full text article from issue #92.
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